The argument depends on the assumption that A is representative of B.
Even assuming…, it is nevertheless impossible to assess the author’s broader contention论点 that …偷换概念的错误。
A threshold problem involves the definition of A; the author fails to define this critical term.
If A is define as…, then … is irrelevant to whether…
与时俱进
It is assumed without justification that background conditions have remained the same at different times (conditions)
因果关系
The author fails to establish the causal relationship between A and B.
Without such evidence, it is equally possible that other factors are instead responsible for…
However, the author provides no evidence to support that that is the case, nor does the author establish a causal relationship between A and B.
The author commits a fallacy of “after this, therefore because of this” in assuming that …
While a high correlation is strong evidence of a causal relationship, in itself it is not sufficient.
The author has not shown any correlation, let alone a cause-and-effort relationship, between … and …
错误类比
First of all, the argument is based on an incomplete comparison and is wholly unpersuasive by this analogy. The author simply assumes that … but he does not provide any evidence that is indeed comparable. As we know, the two situations are not similar enough to justify the analogical deduction.
In short, lacking evidence that conditions on the two ** are relevantly similar, the author cannot convince me on the basis of **’s experience that … would be effective in attaining **’s goals.
Common sense and experience tells us this is not the case, and that a variety of other factors, such as …, also play major roles.
It is possible that …
Such alternatives may include that the fact that…, or …
If so, there may be … due to…, and not due to ….
For example, suppose . If /With respect to
草率推广
一般在题目中如果出现了诸如all / every / any 这类词汇的时候，都会出现以少推多的差异范围。
Unless it can be shown that … is representative of all …, any conclusion we drawn is completely unwarranted.
Without knowing whether the sample studied was representative of the overall group, it is impossible to confidently apply the studies’ results to that population.
The arguer assumes the characteristics of a group apply to every member of that group.
The nationwide study showing … does not necessarily apply to …
非此即彼
反对A即支持B，应该倾向于其他候选人或其他方案。 The author commits a fallacy of “either-or” reasoning. A and B are not necessarily mutually-exclusive alternatives. It is more likely that other proposal might also contribute to the problem. For example… If so, just doing A and B would not solve the problem. In short, without weighing the proposal against alternatives, the article’s claim that … is the “best” means of achieving … is wholly unconvincing.
One must consider how the survey was conducted. (people might just respond with the expected answer.)/
One must consider how broad the survey was. (the survey was limited to a few people)
Were the survey respondents 特殊 people? Was the survey limited to a certain 地域（region）？
(样本的覆盖性)The people studied must be representative of the overall population of people who…; otherwise the author cannot draw any firm conclusion about … based on the study’s result.
(样本的量) Specifically, the responses must be accurate, and the respondents must be statistically significant in number ... .The smaller the sample, the lesser reliable the results.
(比例小) The argument provides no information about what percentage of …;The lower the percentages, the less reliable the results of the surveys.
(总数大人均小)Although the number of … is relatively high, the per capita number might be relatively low.
(总量大但比例小) Although the number appears to be large, it is possible that 此数字 is only a small percent of the total population
△段落参考：
First, the author provides no assurances that the study’s results on which the argument depends are statistically reliable. For example, suppose 反例. If /With respect to 反例. If so, then the survey results would distort the comparison between …Lacking evidence of a sufficiently representative sample, the author cannot justifiably rely on the study to draw any conclusion whatsoever.
成本收益
A(地/公司)will not possibly earn a substantial profit by … (措施). The author provides no information about the costs involved in … +推测或列举哪些额外成本. If so, then the costs of … might prevent A from earning a profit. In short, without more information about supply, demand, and production costs, without weighing revenue against expenses the author’s notion is premature at best.
*Profitability is function of both revenue and expense. Perhaps the revenue…. Or, perhaps the expense….Either scenario would provide an alternative explanation for…
即非充分又非必要
The author’s recommendation is based on the assumption that no alternative means of doing sth are available. 列举Without weighing the proposal against alternatives, the article’s claim that … is the “best ” means of achieving … is wholly unconvincing.
必要而非充分
The author overlooks the possibility that the measure will not in itself suffice to...
The author proceeds as if a condition which by itself is enough to guarantee a certain result is the only condition under which the result would occur.
对比试验
攻击前提不足的句式：The experiment’s results are reliable only if all other factors that might affect … remained constant during the experiment, and if the number of experimental subjects is statistically significant.
攻击缺乏对比的句式：Another fundamental problem is that the author omits to inform us about the test subjects’ … (initial condition) just prior to the experiment. It is impossible to conclude with any confidence that … any information about the initial condition before the experiment.
自相矛盾
the editorial seems to make two irreconcilable claims. One is that ...; the other is that ... the editorial fails to consider that ... Thus, as it stands the argument is self-contradictory, and the author must either modify it by ... or somehow reconcile these two objectives.
信息不完整（incomplete information）
As it stands this evidence is far too vague to support the author’s conclusion.
Absent additional information about the cited studies, these studies lend no
开头段
The argument is well-presented, but not thoroughly well-reasoned.
The author advocates that + conclusion. To justify this claim, the author cites (1)…, (2)…, and (3)…
The author advocates that + conclusion. To justify this claim + 主要论据. He also cites various other evidences to reason this projection that +小结论.Close examination of this supporting evidence, however, reveals the author’s claim is little credible.
正文论证段： △论证展开模式
The threshold problem with this argument is that …
Another fundamental point worth considering is that …
A third problem involves a fact that/the author’s account of …
Before I come to my conclusion, it is necessary to point out another flaw appeared in the argument.
△论证句式
Since the author fails to rule out these and other possibilities for …, I cannot accept any conclusions about …
The mere fact that … hardly suffices to prove…
The author overlooks a myriad（无数） of other possible scenario for …
Even if the author can substantiate all of the foregoing assumptions, his assertion that… is still unwarranted …and he unfairly equates … with ….
If so, this fact would seriously weaken the manager’s claim that …
Nor does the mere fact that… leads significant support to …
△论证段小结： Lacking evidence that … the argument’s conclusion that … is unjustified. Any of these scenarios, if true, would cast considerable doubt on the argument’s conclusion that … In short, without better evidence that …, the author cannot rely on it to draw any firm conclusion about…-let alone about… 结尾： In sum, the author cannot justify his voting recommendation on the basis of the scant 缺少evidence provided in the editorial. To better evaluate the reliability of the study upon which the author’s conclusion depends, I would need more information about the size and makeup of the study’s sample, I would also need to know …
常用词 △形容词： lacking/reliable/unreasonable/dubious/premature/unjustified/unsubstantiated/questionable/insufficiently/supporting/unrepresentative/unwarranted/crucial/recommended/firm/unfair/false/ confidently/ramshackle/ridiculous △名词： proposal/result/ assurance/reliability/ trial/participant/assumption/acquisition/scenario △动词： address/account for/ contribute to/ consider/weigh/weaken/due to/draw/aside from/offer/substantiate/ inform/rest on/serve one’s goal/infer/reason/imply/assume/ eliminate/ cause / explain / serve to / account for / be due to / be responsible for / lead to / result in (from) / contribute to/ recommend / suggest / advice / propose / assert / conclude / claim / advocate / reason / assume / predict / project / forecast / expect
其他增强逻辑关系的句式： 让步： Given that/Granted that …, it is entirely possible that … Even though/Even assuming/Even so… Admittedly 递进：besides /moreover/ additionally/furthermore/ in addition/ what is more 假设：the author unfairly / falsely assumes / implies / infers / reasons 转折：Yet, but, however, nonetheless, nevertheless, while, whereas, (al) though, actually, in fact 其他： This is nowhere more ridiculous than…… It is presumptuous/ illegitimate/arbitrary/unpersuasive to judge……according to……
